After the British surrender at Yorktown, the fledging American government was broke, and paid its debts with loans from France. Disgruntled by a lack of pay and pensions, Continental Army officers formed the so-called Newburgh Conspiracy, possibly encouraged by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Robert Morris to pressure Congress and the states to approve new taxes and strengthen the central government. As David Head shows, it was a perilous moment, testing George Washington's leadership as much as any of his battles in the Revolution.